A practical guide to Base64 in Python using the built-in base64 module: encode and decode strings, bytes and files, handle URL-safe Base64, fix padding errors, and avoid the common str-vs-bytes mistake.
Generate SHA-256 hashes in Python with the built-in hashlib module: hash strings and bytes, hash large files efficiently, get hex or Base64 digests, and add a salt or HMAC for passwords.
URL-encode and decode strings in Python with urllib.parse: when to use quote vs quote_plus, how to encode whole query strings with urlencode, and how to decode percent-encoded text.
Decode a JSON Web Token in Python two ways: manually with the base64 module (no dependencies), and with the PyJWT library, including why decoding is not the same as verifying the signature.
Hash and verify passwords in Python with the bcrypt library: install it, pick a sensible cost factor, hash with a random salt, check a password on login, and understand the $2b$ hash format.
Learn what ROT13 and ROT ciphers are, how they work, where they appear in CTF challenges, and how to decode them instantly with practical examples.
Learn what Bacon's cipher is, how it works, its history, how it hides secret messages inside plain text, and how to decode it in CTF challenges.
Learn what Morse code is, how it works, how to read dots and dashes, and how to decode Morse code in CTF challenges with practical examples.
Learn how the affine cipher works, the math behind it, how to encrypt and decrypt messages, how to find the key, and how to solve affine cipher CTF challenges.
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